Why this matters now
African decolonisation is tested for: pre-WWII context (Berlin Conference 1884-85 + Atlantic Charter 1941 + UN Trusteeship); the role of WWII (African soldiers returned with anti-colonial consciousness); Pan-Africanism (Kwame Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta); 5th Pan-African Congress Manchester 1945; Macmillan Wind of Change Feb 1960; Year of Africa 1960; OAU founded 25 May 1963 (now AU 2002); difficult cases (Algeria 1962, Congo, Angola/Mozambique 1975, Zimbabwe 1980, Namibia 1990, SA 1994); UN role + South African apartheid + Mandela.
Pre-1945 context
- Berlin Conference 1884-85: 14 European powers (Bismarck chaired) divided Africa — the “Scramble for Africa”.
- By 1914: only Ethiopia + Liberia remained independent. UK + France + Belgium + Portugal + Italy + Germany + Spain held the rest.
- Italo-Ethiopian War 1935 — Mussolini invaded Ethiopia; Haile Selassie’s League of Nations speech 1936.
- WWII: ~1 million African troops in Allied forces. Atlantic Charter 1941 (Roosevelt-Churchill) — self-determination principle.
- 5th Pan-African Congress Manchester 1945 — Du Bois, Nkrumah, Kenyatta, Padmore. Demanded immediate independence.
- UN Trusteeship Council oversaw mandated territories (former League mandates) toward independence.
1950s wave
| Year | Country | Leader |
|---|---|---|
| 1951 | Libya | King Idris (former Italian colony) |
| 1952 | Egypt (Free Officers coup 23 July 1952) | Nasser by 1954 |
| 1956 | Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco | Bourguiba (Tunisia), Mohammed V (Morocco) |
| 6 March 1957 | GHANA — 1st sub-Saharan independence | Kwame Nkrumah (Convention People’s Party). Originally Gold Coast. |
| 1958 | Guinea (referendum rejected French Community) | Sékou Touré |
Year of Africa: 1960
3 February 1960: Macmillan’s Wind of Change speech to South African Parliament, Cape Town — UK PM acknowledged inevitability of African nationalism.
17 newly-independent African states in 1960 — the “Year of Africa”: Cameroon, Senegal, Togo, Mali, Madagascar, DRC (Congo), Somalia, Benin, Niger, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Chad, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, Gabon, Nigeria, Mauritania.
Congo Crisis (1960-65): Belgium granted independence 30 June 1960 to Patrice Lumumba with little preparation. Katanga + South Kasai secession; UN intervention; Lumumba assassinated 17 Jan 1961 with CIA + Belgian collusion. UN SG Dag Hammarskjöld died in plane crash Sep 1961. Mobutu Sese Seko took over 1965 (until 1997).
Difficult cases
- Algeria (Algerian War 1954-62): FLN (National Liberation Front) vs France. Brutal war (~1 million Algerians dead); Battle of Algiers 1956-57; OAS terror by colons. Evian Accords 18 March 1962; independence 5 July 1962. Ahmed Ben Bella 1st President.
- Kenya (Mau Mau Uprising 1952-60): Kikuyu rebellion vs British settlers. British declared State of Emergency 20 Oct 1952. ~12,000 killed. Jomo Kenyatta jailed 1953-59; freed; independence 12 Dec 1963.
- Portuguese colonies: Angola war 1961-75 (MPLA + FNLA + UNITA), Mozambique 1964-75 (FRELIMO), Guinea-Bissau 1963-74 (PAIGC, Amilcar Cabral). All independent after Carnation Revolution Lisbon 25 April 1974 ended dictatorship.
- Zimbabwe (Rhodesia): Ian Smith’s white-minority UDI (Unilateral Declaration of Independence) 11 Nov 1965 from UK. Liberation war by ZANU (Robert Mugabe) + ZAPU (Joshua Nkomo). Lancaster House Agreement 1979; independence 18 April 1980.
- Namibia: South African mandate; SWAPO liberation war 1966-90. Independence 21 March 1990 — Sam Nujoma 1st President.
- South Africa apartheid (1948-94): National Party imposed apartheid 1948. Sharpeville Massacre 21 March 1960 (69 killed). Nelson Mandela jailed Robben Island 1962-90. Soweto Uprising 16 June 1976. F.W. de Klerk released Mandela 11 Feb 1990. First non-racial elections 27 April 1994 — Mandela 1st Black President.
OAU + AU + Legacy
Organisation of African Unity (OAU) founded 25 May 1963 at Addis Ababa with 32 founding members (now AU Day, Africa Day). 1st Chair: Emperor Haile Selassie. Goals: continental unity + decolonisation + apartheid’s end. Sirte Declaration 1999 by Gaddafi led to transformation. African Union (AU) launched 9 July 2002 at Durban (Mbeki 1st chair). 55 members. AU vision: Agenda 2063. Pan-African Parliament Midrand SA 2004. African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) 1 January 2021 — world’s largest by countries.
UPSC angle
Know DECOLONISATION OF AFRICA — 1950s-1990s: Berlin Conference 1884-85 (Bismarck chair) Scramble for Africa, 1914 only Ethiopia+Liberia free; Italo-Ethiopian 1935 Haile Selassie League speech 1936; WWII ~1 million African troops Atlantic Charter 1941; 5TH PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESS MANCHESTER 1945 (Du Bois+Nkrumah+Kenyatta+Padmore); UN Trusteeship Council; 1951 Libya, 1952 Egypt (Free Officers 23 July 1952 Nasser by 1954), 1956 Sudan+Tunisia (Bourguiba)+Morocco (Mohammed V); GHANA 6 MARCH 1957 1st SUB-SAHARAN INDEPENDENCE KWAME NKRUMAH (CPP, originally Gold Coast); 1958 Guinea Sékou Touré (rejected French Community); MACMILLAN “WIND OF CHANGE” 3 FEBRUARY 1960 Cape Town South Africa Parliament; YEAR OF AFRICA 1960 17 NEW STATES (Cameroon+Senegal+Togo+Mali+Madagascar+DRC+Somalia+Benin+Niger+BurkinaFaso+IvoryCoast+Chad+CAR+Republic Congo+Gabon+NIGERIA+Mauritania); CONGO CRISIS 1960-65 PATRICE LUMUMBA Belgium granted 30 June 1960, Katanga+South Kasai secession, LUMUMBA ASSASSINATED 17 Jan 1961 CIA+Belgian collusion, UN SG Hammarskjöld plane crash Sept 1961, MOBUTU 1965-97; ALGERIA WAR 1954-62 FLN vs France (~1 million dead, Battle of Algiers 1956-57, OAS), EVIAN ACCORDS 18 March 1962, independence 5 July 1962 Ben Bella; KENYA MAU MAU 1952-60 Kikuyu Brit State of Emergency 20 Oct 1952 ~12000 killed, KENYATTA jailed 1953-59 independence 12 Dec 1963; PORTUGUESE colonies Angola 1961-75 (MPLA/FNLA/UNITA) + Mozambique 1964-75 (FRELIMO) + Guinea-Bissau 1963-74 (PAIGC Amilcar Cabral) → CARNATION REVOLUTION LISBON 25 APRIL 1974; ZIMBABWE Rhodesia Ian Smith UDI 11 Nov 1965, ZANU Mugabe+ZAPU Nkomo, Lancaster House 1979 → 18 April 1980; NAMIBIA SWAPO 1966-90 independence 21 March 1990 Sam Nujoma; SOUTH AFRICA APARTHEID 1948-94 NP, Sharpeville 21 March 1960 (69 killed), Mandela Robben Island 1962-90, Soweto 16 June 1976, F.W. de Klerk released Mandela 11 Feb 1990, FIRST NON-RACIAL ELECTIONS 27 APRIL 1994 Mandela President; OAU 25 MAY 1963 Addis Ababa 32 founding members Haile Selassie 1st chair (Africa Day); Sirte 1999 Gaddafi → AU 9 JULY 2002 Durban Mbeki 1st chair, 55 members, Agenda 2063, Pan-African Parl Midrand SA 2004; AfCFTA 1 January 2021.
Frequently asked questions
Which was the first sub-Saharan African country to gain independence?
Ghana on 6 March 1957 under Kwame Nkrumah of the Convention People’s Party. Previously the British colony of Gold Coast.
What was the “Wind of Change” speech?
UK PM Harold Macmillan’s 3 February 1960 speech to the South African Parliament in Cape Town, acknowledging the inevitable wave of African nationalism and independence.
What was the Year of Africa?
1960 — the year 17 newly-independent African states emerged, the largest decolonisation wave in a single year. Includes Nigeria, DRC, Cameroon, Senegal, Madagascar, Somalia.
When was the OAU founded?
25 May 1963 at Addis Ababa with 32 founding members. Now celebrated as Africa Day. Transformed into the African Union on 9 July 2002.