Mughal Empire — Babur to Bahadur Shah Zafar

Why this matters now

Mughal is foundational GS-1 Medieval History — and key to understanding modern India. Three reasons. First, the Mughal Empire's administrative system (Mansabdari, Todar Mal's revenue) was the foundation that the British built upon. Second, Mughal architecture (Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Fatehpur Sikri) defines India's cultural visual identity. Third, the 1857 First War of Independence is the historical hinge between pre-colonial and colonial India.

Babur — founder, First Battle of Panipat

Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur (1483-1530) — Timurid prince; descendant of Timur (father's side) and Genghis Khan (mother's). Born in Fergana; lost his small kingdom; conquered Kabul (1504).

First Battle of Panipat — 21 April 1526

• Babur (~12,000) vs Ibrahim Lodi (~100,000);
• Revolutionary tactics: field artillery (cannons by Ustad Ali Quli, Mustafa) + Tulghuma (flanking) + wagon lager defence;
• Ibrahim Lodi killed;
• End of Delhi Sultanate.

Other Babur battles

• Khanua (16 March 1527) — vs Rana Sanga of Mewar;
• Ghagra (1529) — vs Afghan-Bengal coalition.

Babur wrote Baburnama in Chagatai Turki — autobiography describing India's flora, fauna, geography. Buried in Bagh-e-Babur, Kabul.

Humayun and the Sher Shah Suri interregnum

• Humayun (1530-40, 1555-56) — Babur's son; weak; defeated by Sher Shah Suri at Battle of Kannauj 1540; fled to Persian exile;
• Sher Shah Suri (1540-45) — Afghan; brief but transformative reign; introduced the Sher Shahi Rupee (standard silver coin); built Grand Trunk Road; revenue reforms (Todar Mal trained under him); died at Kalinjar 1545;
• Humayun returned to power 1555 with Persian help; died falling from library stairs 1556.

Akbar the Great (1556-1605)

The greatest Mughal Emperor. Ascended at age 13 with regent Bairam Khan.

Major events

• Second Battle of Panipat (5 November 1556) — Mughal forces under Bairam Khan defeated Hemu;
• Took personal control 1560; banished Bairam Khan 1561;
• Conquests — Malwa, Rajasthan (Chittor siege 1568), Gujarat (1572-73), Bengal, Kashmir (1586), Sindh, Orissa, Khandesh;
• Empire from Kabul to Bengal, Kashmir to Ahmednagar.

Religious policy

• Sulh-i-Kul — peace with all;
• Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri (1575) — interfaith discussions;
• Din-i-Ilahi (1582) — eclectic "divine religion"; never became mass religion;
• Abolition of Jizya (1564); pilgrim tax abolished.

Navratnas (Nine Gems)

Abul Fazl (historian, Ain-i-Akbari), Birbal, Tansen, Todar Mal, Mansingh, Hakim Humam, and others.

Mansabdari and revenue systems

Mansabdari (introduced 1571)

• Ranks: Zat (personal) + Sawar (cavalry);
• Range 10 to 7,000 (later 8,000);
• Non-hereditary; appointed by Emperor;
• Salary: cash (Naqdi) or revenue assignment (Jagir);
• Dagh (horse branding), Chehra (descriptive rolls);
• Integrated diverse nobility — Turanis, Iranis, Hindus (Rajputs, Marathas), Afghans.

Todar Mal's Dahsala/Zabti revenue system (~1580)

• Detailed land measurement (Bighas);
• Classification by soil, productivity, irrigation;
• 10-year average produce calculated for each area;
• 1/3 of average produce as state share;
• Cash assessment;
• Direct revenue collection in core areas;
• Drought relief mechanisms.

Foundation for British revenue systems (Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, Mahalwari).

Jahangir and Nur Jahan (1605-27)

• Salim, Akbar's son;
• Continued Akbari policies;
• Major Persian-style court culture; miniature painting patron;
• Defeated Mewar (Rana Amar Singh 1615);
• Nur Jahan effectively ruled in later years;
• Thomas Roe (English EIC envoy 1615-19) visited; Hugli factory established;
• Tomb at Shahdara, Lahore.

Shah Jahan — architectural peak (1628-58)

• Khurram; Jahangir's son;
• Taj Mahal (1632-53) — in memory of Mumtaz Mahal;
• Red Fort Delhi;
• Jama Masjid Delhi;
• Peacock Throne (later carried away by Nadir Shah 1739);
• Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) founded as capital;
• War of Succession 1657-58 between sons Dara Shukoh (eldest, eclectic), Murad, Shuja, Aurangzeb;
• Aurangzeb won; imprisoned Shah Jahan at Agra until death 1666.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707) — peak and decline

Alamgir. Longest reigning Mughal emperor. Presided over both peak and the start of decline.

Policies

• Orthodox Islamic policies — reimposed Jizya (1679); destroyed temples;
• Deccan policy — 26+ years (1681-1707) trying to conquer Bijapur (1686), Golconda (1687), control Marathas;
• Defeated Maratha king Sambhaji 1689;
• Despite victories, Marathas under Shivaji (1627/30-80) and successors became major counter-force;
• Empire territorially largest under him — Bengal to Tamil Nadu;
• But financial drain, military overstretch, religious alienation of Rajputs and Marathas;
• Died at Aurangabad 1707; buried at Khuldabad.

Decline 1707-1857

1857 — First War of Independence

Causes

• Greased cartridges (rumoured pig/cow fat) for Enfield rifle;
• Doctrine of Lapse (Dalhousie); annexation of Awadh 1856;
• Economic ruin of peasants and artisans;
• Missionary activity;
• Racial discrimination.

Major events

• 29 March 1857 — Mangal Pandey at Barrackpore (sepoy mutiny);
• 10 May 1857 — Meerut revolt;
• 11 May 1857 — Delhi captured by sepoys; Bahadur Shah Zafar declared emperor;
• Major centres — Delhi, Lucknow (Begum Hazrat Mahal), Kanpur (Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope), Jhansi (Rani Lakshmibai), Bihar (Kunwar Singh);
• 14 Sept 1857 — British recapture Delhi;
• March 1858 — Lucknow recaptured.

Aftermath

• Government of India Act 1858 — East India Company abolished; British Crown rule;
• Queen Victoria's Proclamation;
• Bahadur Shah Zafar exiled to Rangoon; died 1862;
• End of Mughal Empire; beginning of formal British Raj.

Legacy

• Administration — Mansabdari + Todar Mal revenue → British framework;
• Architecture — Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Fatehpur Sikri define India's visual identity;
• Language — Hindustani synthesis; Urdu literature;
• Cuisine — biryani, kebab, samosa, naan;
• Painting — Mughal miniature schools;
• Music — Tansen tradition; raga elaboration;
• Synthesis — Akbar's Sulh-i-Kul as model of religious pluralism;
• Political model — pan-Indian empire as aspiration influencing later Indian state.

"The Mughal Empire was the last great pre-modern Indian polity. Its legacy — administrative, cultural, architectural, civilisational — is still legible in every aspect of modern Indian life. The 1857 revolt was the death of the Mughal world and the birth of the modern Indian one." — paraphrasing Bipin Chandra's India's Struggle for Independence

UPSC PYQs and likely future questions

• 2018 GS-1: "Examine the architectural innovations during the Mughal period."
• 2020 GS-1: "Discuss the policies of Akbar that contributed to making the Mughal Empire pan-Indian."
• 2024 GS-1: "Examine the role of the 1857 revolt in shaping modern Indian political consciousness."
• 2019 GS-1: "Discuss the contribution of Bhakti and Sufi movements during the medieval period." (also relevant to Mughal era)
• Likely 2026: "Compare the administrative systems of Akbar and Aurangzeb. What explains the empire's decline?"

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