Why this matters now
Indus is tested for: Senge Khabab Tibet source; Indus Civilisation 5,500-2,500 BCE; flow through Ladakh-Kashmir-Pakistan; the Panchnad (5 rivers): Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej; the Indus Waters Treaty signed 19 September 1960 at Karachi by Nehru + Ayub Khan + World Bank Vice President W.A.B. Iliff; allocation (Eastern 33 MAF to India + Western 80 MAF to Pakistan); Kishanganga Hydroelectric Project; Ratle HEP arbitration; 23 April 2025 India suspended IWT after Pahalgam attack.
Course
| Stage | Detail |
|---|---|
| Source (Tibet) | Senge Khabab (Sengge Tsangpo) — “Lion’s Mouth” spring north of Mt Kailash + Lake Mansarovar in Tibet, ~5,165 m elevation. |
| India entry | Through Demchok in Ladakh (Aksai Chin area). Flows NW through Leh. |
| India course | Through Ladakh + (PoK) Gilgit-Baltistan + briefly Indus traditional Skardu area. |
| Pakistan | Enters near Indus-Tarbela. Joined by Kabul River (right bank). Then by Panjnad (combined 5 rivers) near Mithankot. |
| Mouth | Arabian Sea south of Karachi at Thatta (Sindh). |
Major tributaries in Indus System (Panchnad — “5 rivers” gave Punjab its name):
- JHELUM (Vitasta) — rises Verinag spring Kashmir Valley; flows through Wular Lake (largest freshwater in India); joined by Kishenganga at Muzaffarabad; into Pakistan. 725 km.
- CHENAB (Chandrabhaga) — formed by Chandra + Bhaga at Tandi HP; flows Lahaul-Spiti; into Pakistan via Akhnoor. 1,180 km.
- RAVI (Iravati) — rises Bara Bangahal HP; through Punjab; into Pakistan. 720 km.
- BEAS (Vipasa) — rises Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass; through Manali-Kullu HP; joins Sutlej at Harike. 470 km. Eastern terminus of Indus.
- SUTLEJ (Satadru) — rises Rakshastal Lake near Mansarovar Tibet; flows HP-Punjab; Bhakra-Nangal Dam (1963 Nehru “temple of modern India”); joins Beas at Harike; Indira Gandhi Canal Rajasthan. 1,500 km.
Indus Waters Treaty 1960
The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) was signed on 19 September 1960 at Karachi by PM Jawaharlal Nehru + Pakistan President Ayub Khan with the World Bank as mediator (Vice President W.A.B. Iliff signed). 8 years of negotiation; David Lilienthal’s 1951 article in Collier’s proposed the framework.
Allocation:
- Eastern rivers (Sutlej + Beas + Ravi): India exclusive use. ~33 MAF (Million Acre Feet) per year. India can build dams + extract.
- Western rivers (Indus + Chenab + Jhelum): Pakistan — ~80 MAF. India can use for non-consumptive (hydropower, navigation), restricted irrigation (up to 6,42,477 acres).
Institutional mechanism: Permanent Indus Commission (1 commissioner each); regular meetings.
Dispute resolution: (1) Commission, (2) Neutral Expert (3) Court of Arbitration.
Contentious projects:
- Kishanganga HEP (330 MW) — on Kishanganga river (Jhelum tributary), Bandipore J&K. Pakistan went to PCA. PCA 2013 verdict upheld India’s project with minimum environmental flow. Inaugurated PM Modi 19 May 2018.
- Ratle HEP (850 MW) — on Chenab. Court of Arbitration ruling 2023.
- India sent 23 January 2023 + 30 August 2024 notices seeking IWT renegotiation citing “changed circumstances” (population, climate, terrorism).
- 23 April 2025: India suspended IWT in response to Pahalgam terrorist attack (22 April 2025) — first time since 1960.
Major Projects on Indus System
- Bhakra-Nangal Dam (1963) on Sutlej — 226 m, India’s 2nd tallest after Tehri; “temple of modern India” (Nehru).
- Pong Dam (1974) on Beas — tallest earth-fill dam India.
- Indira Gandhi Canal (1958-87) — world’s longest irrigation canal 649 km, from Harike (Sutlej-Beas confluence) to Rajasthan desert.
- Salal Dam on Chenab (1987).
- Baglihar Dam on Chenab (J&K).
- Kishanganga HEP on Jhelum tributary.
- Tulbul Navigation Project on Wular Lake.
UPSC angle
Know INDUS RIVER SYSTEM — 3180 km; SOURCE SENGE KHABAB (Sengge Tsangpo) “Lion’s Mouth” north Mt Kailash+Mansarovar Tibet 5165 m; enters India Demchok LADAKH (Aksai Chin area), flows Leh + PoK Gilgit-Baltistan; Pakistan: joined Kabul River right + Panjnad combined 5 rivers Mithankot; mouth Arabian Sea Thatta Sindh; PANCHNAD “5 RIVERS” gave Punjab name: JHELUM/Vitasta 725 km (Verinag spring Kashmir + Wular Lake largest freshwater India + Muzaffarabad), CHENAB/Chandrabhaga 1180 km (Chandra+Bhaga at Tandi HP, Lahaul-Spiti, Akhnoor), RAVI/Iravati 720 km (Bara Bangahal HP), BEAS/Vipasa 470 km (Beas Kund Rohtang Pass + Manali-Kullu + Harike Sutlej), SUTLEJ/Satadru 1500 km (Rakshastal Lake Tibet + Bhakra-Nangal Dam 1963 Nehru “temple of modern India” + Harike + INDIRA GANDHI CANAL Rajasthan); INDUS WATERS TREATY (IWT) 19 SEPTEMBER 1960 KARACHI NEHRU+AYUB KHAN World Bank VP W.A.B. ILIFF mediator (8 yrs negotiation, David Lilienthal Collier’s 1951 framework); ALLOCATION: EASTERN RIVERS Sutlej+Beas+Ravi INDIA EXCLUSIVE ~33 MAF can build dams+extract; WESTERN RIVERS Indus+Chenab+Jhelum PAKISTAN ~80 MAF, India non-consumptive (hydropower+navigation+restricted irrigation 6,42,477 acres); PERMANENT INDUS COMMISSION 1 commissioner each; DISPUTE RESOLUTION: Commission → NEUTRAL EXPERT → COURT OF ARBITRATION; KISHANGANGA HEP 330 MW Jhelum tributary Bandipore J&K, PCA 2013 upheld India with min environmental flow, inaug Modi 19 May 2018; RATLE HEP 850 MW Chenab Court Arbitration 2023; India NOTICES 23 Jan 2023 + 30 Aug 2024 seeking IWT renegotiation (changed circumstances population+climate+terrorism); 23 APRIL 2025 INDIA SUSPENDED IWT post-Pahalgam attack 22 April 2025 (FIRST TIME SINCE 1960); MAJOR PROJECTS: Bhakra-Nangal 1963 Sutlej 226 m + Pong Dam 1974 Beas tallest earth-fill + INDIRA GANDHI CANAL 1958-87 world’s longest 649 km Harike to Rajasthan + Salal 1987 Chenab + Baglihar Chenab + Tulbul Wular.
Frequently asked questions
Where does the Indus originate?
At Senge Khabab (Sengge Tsangpo, “Lion’s Mouth”) — a spring north of Mt Kailash and Lake Mansarovar in Tibet, at ~5,165 m elevation.
What is the Indus Waters Treaty?
Signed 19 September 1960 at Karachi by Nehru and Ayub Khan with World Bank mediation. Allocates 3 eastern rivers (Sutlej + Beas + Ravi, ~33 MAF) to India and 3 western rivers (Indus + Chenab + Jhelum, ~80 MAF) to Pakistan.
What was the Kishanganga case?
Pakistan challenged India’s Kishanganga HEP (330 MW) on a Jhelum tributary at the Permanent Court of Arbitration. PCA 2013 ruling upheld India’s project subject to maintaining minimum environmental flow.
When was the IWT suspended?
On 23 April 2025 by India in response to the Pahalgam terrorist attack (22 April 2025) — the first suspension since the treaty was signed in 1960.