Why this matters now
Kyoto Protocol is tested for: COP3 Kyoto adoption 11 Dec 1997; legally binding for Annex-I only (CBDR-RC principle); 5.2% cumulative reduction target; 6 GHGs covered; 3 flexibility mechanisms (CDM + JI + IET); USA signed but did not ratify (Senate Byrd-Hagel resolution); 1st commitment period 2008-12; Doha Amendment 2012 for 2nd commitment period 2013-20; Canada withdrew 2011; Russia ratification 18 Nov 2004 triggered entry-into-force; India ratified August 2002.
Emission Targets
1st commitment period (2008-12): Annex-I countries (36 industrialised + EITs) collectively reduce GHG emissions by 5.2% below 1990 levels.
Individual targets varied:
- EU-15: -8%; later EU-27 (-20% by 2020 separately).
- USA: -7% (signed but did NOT ratify).
- Japan: -6%.
- Canada: -6% (withdrew 2011).
- Russia: 0%.
- Australia: +8% (post-Howard then ratified).
- Iceland: +10%.
6 GHGs covered: CO2 + CH4 (methane) + N2O (nitrous oxide) + HFCs + PFCs + SF6.
Three Flexibility Mechanisms
- Clean Development Mechanism (CDM, Article 12): developed country invests in emission-reduction project in developing country; earns Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) to offset own emissions. By 2024: 8,200+ CDM projects, 7,800+ in operation. India had ~1,500 CDM projects (2nd largest after China). CDM Executive Board governs.
- Joint Implementation (JI, Article 6): Annex-I country invests in another Annex-I country’s emission-reduction project; earns Emission Reduction Units (ERUs). Smaller scale than CDM.
- International Emissions Trading (IET, Article 17): Annex-I countries trade their Assigned Amount Units (AAUs). Foundation of EU ETS (world’s largest carbon market).
Timeline
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| 11 Dec 1997 | Adopted at COP3 Kyoto. |
| 16 March 1998 | Opened for signature. |
| 25 July 1997 | US Senate Byrd-Hagel Resolution (95-0) opposing any climate treaty without developing-country commitments. |
| 2001 | USA under Bush withdrew signing (had not ratified). |
| 18 Nov 2004 | Russia ratified — triggered entry-into-force (need 55 parties + 55% Annex-I emissions). |
| 16 Feb 2005 | ENTRY INTO FORCE. |
| 2008-12 | 1st commitment period. |
| 15 Dec 2011 | Canada announced withdrawal. |
| 8 Dec 2012 | Doha Amendment — 2nd commitment period 2013-20 (EU + Australia + Norway + Switzerland; Japan + Russia + NZ did not). 18% cut from 1990. |
| 4 Nov 2016 | Paris Agreement entry-into-force. |
| 31 Dec 2020 | Kyoto 2nd commitment period ended. |
| 2021 onwards | Paris Agreement supersedes Kyoto. |
India + Kyoto
India ratified Kyoto on 26 August 2002. As a non-Annex-I (developing) country, India had no binding emission targets — basis of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR).
India’s gain: 2nd largest CDM hub after China — ~1,500 CDM projects approved + 250+ million CERs issued + ~$5 bn FDI through CDM. Wind energy + biomass + small hydro + energy efficiency dominated. NABARD + IREDA + national CDM authority (Min of Environment) ran the system.
CBDR-RC (Common but Differentiated Responsibilities + Respective Capabilities) — foundational equity principle India championed.
UPSC angle
Know KYOTO PROTOCOL adopted 11 DEC 1997 COP3 Kyoto, IN FORCE 16 FEB 2005 (Russia ratification 18 Nov 2004 triggered, needed 55 parties + 55% Annex-I); 1ST LEGALLY BINDING emission reduction treaty UNFCCC; ANNEX-I 36 INDUSTRIALISED countries+EITs collectively REDUCE 5.2% BELOW 1990 by 2008-12; individual targets EU-15 -8%, USA -7% (signed NOT RATIFIED Byrd-Hagel Senate 1997 95-0), Japan -6%, Canada -6% (withdrew 15 Dec 2011), Russia 0%, Australia +8%, Iceland +10%; 6 GHGs CO2+CH4 methane+N2O nitrous oxide+HFCs+PFCs+SF6; 3 FLEXIBILITY MECHANISMS: (1) CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM (CDM Art 12) developed invests emission-reduction project DEVELOPING earn CERs Certified Emission Reductions; 8200+ projects 7800 operational, INDIA 1500 projects 2ND LARGEST AFTER CHINA; (2) JOINT IMPLEMENTATION (JI Art 6) Annex-I to Annex-I earn ERUs Emission Reduction Units; (3) INTERNATIONAL EMISSIONS TRADING (IET Art 17) Annex-I trade Assigned Amount Units AAUs foundation EU ETS world’s largest carbon market; TIMELINE: 11 Dec 1997 adopted, 25 July 1997 BYRD-HAGEL Senate Resolution 95-0, 2001 Bush withdrew US signing, 18 Nov 2004 Russia ratified, 16 FEB 2005 IN FORCE; 2008-12 1st commitment period; 15 Dec 2011 CANADA WITHDRAWN; 8 DEC 2012 DOHA AMENDMENT 2nd commitment period 2013-20 (EU+Australia+Norway+Switzerland only; Japan+Russia+NZ did NOT; 18% cut from 1990); 4 Nov 2016 Paris in force; 31 Dec 2020 Kyoto 2nd commitment period ended; INDIA ratified 26 AUGUST 2002 NON-ANNEX-I no binding targets CBDR-RC; INDIA GAIN: 2nd largest CDM hub after China ~1500 projects + 250+ million CERs + ~$5 bn FDI; wind+biomass+small hydro+energy efficiency; NABARD+IREDA+CDM National Authority Min Environment; CBDR-RC (Common but Differentiated Responsibilities + Respective Capabilities) foundational equity principle India championed.
Frequently asked questions
When was Kyoto Protocol adopted?
At COP3 in Kyoto on 11 December 1997. Entered into force on 16 February 2005 after Russia’s ratification (18 Nov 2004) met the 55-party/55% threshold.
Did the USA ratify Kyoto?
No — USA signed but never ratified. The Senate’s Byrd-Hagel Resolution (95-0, July 1997) opposed any treaty without binding developing-country commitments. Bush formally withdrew signing in 2001.
What are the 3 Kyoto mechanisms?
CDM (Clean Development Mechanism, Art 12): developed-invest-in-developing earns CERs. JI (Joint Implementation, Art 6): Annex-I-to-Annex-I earns ERUs. IET (International Emissions Trading, Art 17): trade AAUs.
What was the Doha Amendment?
Adopted 8 December 2012 — extended Kyoto with a 2nd commitment period 2013-2020. Only EU + Australia + Norway + Switzerland committed; Japan, Russia, NZ opted out. 18% cut from 1990.